Negotiating salary? 4 important tips

When Sanjeev Verma took the offer to join a new company, he was quite happy with the cost-to-company salary that was offered to him.

However, after the first month, when the salary cheque came, he was shocked with the numbers. His actual take-home was slightly more than his previous salary. And,Verma is not alone.

There are many of us who get lured with the numbers that show in our CTC package, but when the actual take-home salary comes in our hand, it causes a lot of heartache. It is therefore very important that when you are negotiating the salary, you should have a clear idea about numbers. A good way to achieve this is by using tax saving strategies that would reduce your burden.

Ah! those slips that snip

The first thing to look for is the different heads in your salary package. Heads like performance incentive sound challenging, but they are always taxed. Special allowances, added with conveyance and phone reimbursement, also attract tax.

Often, there is a notion among salary-earners that a lesser basic pay and high allowances may bring down income tax burden. However, it is best if you avoid this approach. A reduced basic salary leads to a lower provident fund, which is a forced saving for your future.

Anyone who gets many allowances must combine all of them under a single head. Put car allowance, books reimbursement, house rent allowance, office travel allowance, phone, vehicle and staying in hotels under on head, which straight away lowers your tax bill. Call this consolidated allowance.

Allowances that help

Always go for conveyance allowance. A sum of Rs 800 a month is tax-free. Even if your office does not give conveyance allowance, you can ask for a reduced basic pay and additional conveyance allowance. This move can cut down tax outgo.

Daily allowance, wherever allowed, must be grabbed with both hands because it carries total tax exemption. Professional tax, up to Rs 2,500, is also unencumbered by tax. Also, office loans for car or personal reasons can be used to avoid taxation to a great extent.

Policies that pay

Employees State Insurance Scheme, if available, must be compulsorily availed. Unlike LIC [Get Quote] schemes, the amount is absolutely free from income tax. Fidelity Guarantee Scheme is another insurance plan that is completely tax-free.

Even if you are contributing to a Public Provident Fund, a salaried individual must also opt for Employers Provident Fund, because this also doesn't attract tax. Many salaried people are unaware that a loan for medical treatment is exempt from income tax under Rule 3 A, but make sure that your medical insurance policy is not utilised.

Avoiding FBT

The fringe benefit tax can be avoided if you own a car and the company pays for maintenance and petrol bills. The most profitable way to claim HRA is to ask the company to take a house on lease, which is owned by any of your relatives. If it's your parents, who don't have any income, it works completely to your advantage.

It is because, on one hand, you claim HRA and they, having zero income, don't have to pay any tax. In fact, even if they have some income, but less than the stipulated base limit of Rs 220,000 a year (assuming they are retired), they would gain from the situation. The maximum benefit occurs when the rent is over 20 per cent of your salary.

When gift vouchers are given, insist on taking them under the employee welfare scheme.

Mobile phone bills are considered a perquisite and taxed, causing your office to fret a lot. You can again offer tax counselling by suggesting a simple trick.

The mobile phone bills can be placed under "recurring operative expenditure" head. All taxes are eliminated at one stroke. At home, leased phone landlines installed at the company's behest and cost, allows you to get rid of paying tax on calls.

Travel expenses and hotel stays are taxed under FBT. In fact, even a conference to discuss reducing tax incidence on perquisites will also be taxed! However, by not showing the expenditure as conference/seminar and calling it "convention" would remove the tax burden.

The office may want to give meals, breakfast or tiffin, but FBT fear precludes an employer from extending this perquisite to staff. Why not have an office "food and beverage" account? Show the claim in the income tax return.

The FBT will not apply, at all. Finally, soft furnishings for a house (such as curtains and table cloth), which give the abode a decent appearance for entertaining guests who drop in for official duties, can be shown as expenses. They also qualify for tax exemption.

 

Improving your Memory: Tips and Techniques for Memory Enhancement

If our brains were computers, we'd simply add a chip to upgrade our memory. However, the human brain is more complex than even the most advanced machine, so improving human memory requires slightly more effort.

 

Just like muscular strength, your ability to remember increases when you exercise your memory and nurture it with a good diet and other healthy habits. There are a number of steps you can take to improve your memory and retrieval capacity. First, however, it's helpful to understand how we remember

 

What is memory?

Simply put, memory is the mental activity of recalling information that you have learned or experienced. That simple definition, though, covers a complex process that involves many different parts of the brain and serves us in disparate ways.

Memory can be short-term or long-term. In short-term memory, your mind stores information for a few seconds or a few minutes: the time it takes you to dial a phone number you just looked up or to compare the prices of several items in a store. Such memory is fragile, and it¡¯s meant to be; your brain would soon read ¡°disk full¡± if you retained every phone number you called, every dish you ordered in a restaurant, and the subject of every ad you watched on TV. Your brain is also meant to hold an average of seven items, which is why you can usually remember a new phone number for a few minutes but need your credit card in front of you when you¡¯re buying something online.

 

Long-term memory involves the information you make an effort (conscious or unconscious) to retain, because it¡¯s personally meaningful to you (for example, data about family and friends); you need it (such as job procedures or material you¡¯re studying for a test); or it made an emotional impression (a movie that had you riveted, the first time you ever caught a fish, the day your uncle died). Some information that you store in long-term memory requires a conscious effort to recall: episodic memories, which are personal memories about experiences you¡¯ve had at specific times; and semantic memories (factual data not bound to time or place), which can be everything from the names of the planets to the color of your child¡¯s hair. Another type of long-term memory is procedural memory, which involves skills and routines you perform so often that they don¡¯t require conscious recall.

Certain areas of the brain are especially important in the formation and retention of memory:

The hippocampus, a primitive structure deep in the brain, plays the single largest role in processing information as memory.

The amygdala, an almond-shaped area near the hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint memories that involve emotion.

The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, stores most long-term memory in different zones, depending on what kind of processing the information involves: language, sensory input, problem-solving, and so forth.

In addition, memory involves communication among the brain¡¯s network of neurons, millions of cells activated by brain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

Stages of memory foundation and maintenance

There are three stages that the brain goes through in forming and retaining memories.

Stages of Memory Foundation and Maintenance
Acquisition ¡ú	Consolidation ¡ú	Retrieval
New information enters your brain along pathways between neurons in the appropriate area of the brain. The key to encoding information into your memory is concentration; unless you focus on information intently, it goes ¡°in one ear and out the other.¡± This is why teachers are always nagging students to pay attention!	If you¡¯ve concentrated well enough to encode new information in your brain, the hippocampus sends a signal to store the information as long-term memory. This happens more easily if it¡¯s related to something you already know, or if it stimulates an emotional response.	When you need to recall information, your brain has to activate the same pattern of nerve cells it used to store it. The more frequently you need the information, the easier it is to retrieve it along healthy nerve cell connections.

Tips for memory improvements

Do you feel that you have a poor memory? You may just have some less-than-effective habits when it comes to taking in and processing information. Barring disease, disorder, or injury, you can improve your ability to learn and retain information.

Brain exercises

Memory, like muscular strength, is a ¡°use it or lose it¡± proposition. The more you work out your brain, the better you¡¯ll be able to process and remember information.
Novelty and sensory stimulation are the foundation of brain exercise. If you break your routine in a challenging way, you¡¯re using brain pathways you weren¡¯t using before. This can involve something as simple as brushing your teeth with your nondominant hand, which activates little-used connections on the nondominant side of your brain. Or try a ¡°neurobic¡± exercise ¨C an aerobic exercise for your brain ¨C (see Keep Your Brain Alive Exercise) that forces you to use your faculties in unusual ways, like showering and getting dressed with your eyes closed. Take a course in a subject you don¡¯t know much about, learn a new game of strategy, or cook up some recipes in an unfamiliar cuisine. That¡¯s the most effective way to keep your synapses firing.

General guidelines to improve memory

In addition to exercising your brain, there are some basic things you can do to improve your ability to retain and retrieve memories:

1. Pay attention. You can¡¯t remember something if you never learned it, and you can¡¯t learn something ¡ª that is, encode it into your brain ¡ª if you don¡¯t pay enough attention to it. It takes about eight seconds of intent focus to process a piece of information through your hippocampus and into the appropriate memory center. So, no multitasking when you need to concentrate! If you distract easily, try to receive information in a quiet place where you won¡¯t be interrupted.
2. Tailor information acquisition to your learning style. Most people are visual learners; they learn best by reading or otherwise seeing what it is they have to know. But some are auditory learners who learn better by listening. They might benefit by recording information they need and listening to it until they remember it.
3. Involve as many senses as possible. Even if you¡¯re a visual learner, read out loud what you want to remember. If you can recite it rhythmically, even better. Try to relate information to colors, textures, smells and tastes. The physical act of rewriting information can help imprint it onto your brain.
4. Relate information to what you already know. Connect new data to information you already remember, whether it¡¯s new material that builds on previous knowledge, or something as simple as an address of someone who lives on a street where you already know someone.
5. Organize information. Write things down in address books and datebooks and on calendars; take notes on more complex material and reorganize the notes into categories later. Use both words and pictures in learning information.
6. Understand and be able to interpret complex material. For more complex material, focus on understanding basic ideas rather than memorizing isolated details. Be able to explain it to someone else in your own words.  
7. Rehearse information frequently and ¡°over-learn¡±. Review what you¡¯ve learned the same day you learn it, and at intervals thereafter. What researchers call ¡°spaced rehearsal¡± is more effective than ¡°cramming.¡± If you¡¯re able to ¡°over-learn¡± information so that recalling it becomes second nature, so much the better.
8. Be motivated and keep a positive attitude. Tell yourself that you want to learn what you need to remember, and that you can learn and remember it. Telling yourself you have a bad memory actually hampers the ability of your brain to remember, while positive mental feedback sets up an expectation of success.

Mnemonic devices to improve memory

Mnemonics (the initial ¡°m¡± is silent) are clues of any kind that help us remember something, usually by causing us to associate the information we want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word.

Common types of mnemonic devices include:

1. Visual images - a microphone to remember the name ¡°Mike,¡± a rose for ¡°Rosie.¡± Use positive, pleasant images, because the brain often blocks out unpleasant ones, and make them vivid, colorful, and three-dimensional ¡ª they¡¯ll be easier to remember.
2. Sentences in which the first letter of each word is part of or represents the initial of what you want to remember. Millions of musicians, for example, first memorized the lines of the treble staff with the sentence ¡°Every good boy does fine¡± (or ¡°deserves favor¡±), representing the notes E, G, B, D, and F. Medical students often learn groups of nerves, bones, and other anatomical features using nonsense sentences.
3. Acronyms, which are initials that creates pronounceable words. The spaces between the lines on the treble staff, for example, are F, A, C, and E: FACE.
4. Rhymes and alliteration: remember learning ¡°30 days hath September, April, June, and November¡±? A hefty guy named Robert can be remembered as ¡°Big Bob¡± and a smiley co-worker as ¡°Perky Pat¡± (though it might be best to keep such names to yourself).
5. Jokes or even off-color associations using facts, figures, and names you need to recall, because funny or peculiar things are easier to remember than mundane images.
6. ¡°Chunking¡± information; that is, arranging a long list in smaller units or categories that are easier to remember. If you can reel off your Social Security number without looking at it, that¡¯s probably because it¡¯s arranged in groups of 3, 2, and 4 digits, not a string of 9.
7. ¡°Method of loci¡±: This is an ancient and effective way of remembering a lot of material, such as a speech. You associate each part of what you have to remember with a landmark in a route you know well, such as your commute to work.

Healthy habits to improve memory

Treating your body well can enhance your ability to process and recall information.

Healthy Habits that Improve Memory
Regular exercise	Increases oxygen to your brain. Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.
Managing stress	Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is unrelieved. Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Good sleep habits	Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation. Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to concentrate during the day.
Not smoking	Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.

Nutrition and Memory improvement

You probably know already that a diet based on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and ¡°healthy¡± fats will provide lots of health benefits, but such a diet can also improve memory. Research indicates that certain nutrients nurture and stimulate brain function.

B vitamins, especially B6, B12, and folic acid, protects neurons by breaking down homocysteine, an amino acid that is toxic to nerve cells. They¡¯re also involved in making red blood cells, which carry oxygen. (Best sources: spinach and other dark leafy greens, broccoli, asparagus, strawberries, melons, black beans and other legumes, citrus fruits, soybeans.)

Antioxidants like vitamins C and E, and beta carotene, fight free radicals, which are atoms formed when oxygen interacts with certain molecules. Free radicals are highly reactive and can damage cells, but antioxidants can interact with them safely and neutralize them. Antioxidants also improve the flow of oxygen through the body and brain. (Best sources: blueberries and other berries, sweet potatoes, red tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, green tea, nuts and seeds, citrus fruits, liver.)

Omega-3 fatty acids are concentrated in the brain and are associated with cognitive function. They count as ¡°healthy¡± fats, as opposed to saturated fats and trans fats, protecting against inflammation and high cholesterol. (Best sources: cold-water fish such as salmon, herring, tuna, halibut, and mackerel; walnuts and walnut oil; flaxseed and flaxseed oil)

Because older adults are more prone to B12 and folic acid deficiencies, a supplement may be a good idea for seniors. An omega-3 supplement (at any age) if you don¡¯t like eating fish. But nutrients work best when they¡¯re consumed in foods, so try your best to eat a broad spectrum of colorful plant foods and choose fats that will help clear, not clog, your arteries. Your brain will thank you!

 

Memory and aging

Several factors cause aging brains to experience changes in the ability to retain and retrieve memories:

• The hippocampus is especially vulnerable to age-related deterioration, and that can affect how well you retain information.
• There¡¯s a relative loss of neurons with age, which can affect the activity of brain chemicals called neurotransmitters and their receptors.
• An older person often experiences decreased blood flow to the brain and processes nutrients that enhance brain activity less efficiently than a younger person.

However, in healthy older adults, these changes represent more of a slowing in the ability to absorb, store, and retrieve new information, not a loss. The factual information you¡¯ve accumulated over the years remains largely intact, as does procedural memory. You can make and recall new long-term memories; the process just takes a little longer.

Of course, some older adults do develop more significant problems with memory that are the result of diseases such as Alzheimer¡¯s or stroke; injury; poor nutrition; other physiological issues; or emotional problems.

A page written by a Project Manager - Please read

A page written by a Project Manager - Please read

Dear Sony,

 

Now at 1.30am , I am sitting in my cabin

With yet another cup of coffee in front of me

It is my 55^th coffee if I remember correct

That also I am not quite sure .......

 

Everybody have gone 

Even the second shift staff

You may wonder why I am here
And what I am doing.

I am thinking about you !
Yes only about you !!!!!!

 

I remember the day in the office
you were introduced to me

They told you will be a good assistant to me.

I was happy that I am lucky to have
A beauty like you to assist me.

And really it turned to be.

 

I remember the days,
We spent together in office.

I was really thrilled,
By an assistant like you.

I put many confusions
You had all the answers ready.

I got all my problems solved
When I was with you.

 

I told you about my family,

Children and every thing in my life

You looked at me smiling

And never made any comment.

 
You were the first person to know

I was planning to buy a flat.

We searched together and found

One which was suitable to my family.

 

You helped me a lot for the bank loans

Calculated the interests and the hidden costs.

I felt bad as I didn't invited you for the house warming

I was afraid how I will  introduce you to all there.

 
I know that many staffs were talking about our relationship

I never extended an ear to it and neglected it.

You also might have heard about the comments they made

You also kept quite and neglected as I did.

 

We sat late in the office to complete the projects

I used to get phone calls from wife complaining

But no one called you to disturb us.

I am glad I had an assistant like you.

 

I shared my ideas with you

You guided me when I was wrong

Though you were my assistant

I was proud to have an assistant like you.

 

My wife doesn't like you

That fact I never told you

That was one reason I sit late in the office

Enjoying every moment working with you

 
I took you to meetings to assist me

You presented my ideas better than me

You never let me down in meetings

Many people were looking at you as 'impressed'

 

Many asked me also "where you found her"

"You are not seen without her"

"What is the binding factor between both?"

I told them it is 'Chemistry' and not 'Biology'

 

I took you once to my new flat

When my wife and kids were away with her parents

She doesn't like to see you in the home

What she says "office is office and home is home"

 

We shared one room as we went outstation projects

You never asked for anything 'separate'

You worked late with me there also

Never ever claimed any overtime money.

 

You saw my family pictures of every moment

Never made any comment on that.

Not even shown any of yours

I never asked also, as you were with me most of the time.

 

When you get sick, I get anxious

I took you to specialists and made sure that you are OK

I felt, I am unable to do anything

In the office and life with out you.

 

I heard 'you are getting a transfer'

To assist somebody in the office

And I will get a 'new assistant'

I felt very bad as I was attached to you so much.

 

You were not of shining complexion

A little dark but I liked the way you are

I loved you dark beauty

My wife is fair and she doesn't like dark ones.

 

When I move fingers on you

I felt like 'any thing' and did 'many thing'

And I didn't know how you felt as you never told

But you did wonders 'when my hands were on you'

 

I liked you as you never made any 'advance move'

Never asked any thing from me

Always I was the one to take the 'imitative'

And you only obeyed my 'instructions' as a boss.

 

Now it is 3.00 AM, I switched off my mobile

If my wife ask, what should I reply, I don't know

I cannot say, I was thinking of you in the office

She doesn't want to hear your name in 'her house', I bought for her.

 

Now it is the age of Nano Technology

Mr. Mehtha said 'you will get a better assistant"

'Slimmer, Beautiful, Vibrant, Efficient and Charming'

But I loved your profile, the way you have.

 

 I cannot afford to miss you my darling "my sonu kudi'

  

As you are the one and only

 

 

Sony Vaio

 My dearest lap top

How to avoid making mistakes in English

Rules of error-free speaking and writing 1.         Use simple language. Some beginners try to build very complicated sentences with things like the present perfect tense or conditionals. They make horrible mistakes. Don't do this! If you've just started to speak or write in English, you should say what you can say (simple sentences that you have seen many times) — not what you want to say (complicated sentences). You may feel you're talking like a child or that you are not expressing your thoughts, but don't worry about it. Right now, your task is not to express your thoughts freely; your task is to learn the language. 2.         Be slow and careful. In the beginning, you should write very slowly. If you need 2 hours to write an e-mail message with 10 correct sentences, that's okay. That's how long it should take if you're just starting to write. Why should it take so long? Because you should read your sentences many times, looking for mistakes. You should correct your own sentences frequently. You should check if your sentences are correct by using a dictionary and the Web. And you should look for example sentences to imitate. When you're speaking, it's okay to build a sentence for some time in your head before you open your mouth. 3.         If you're not sure how to say something, don't say it. If you can't say something correctly, it's almost always better not to say it. You don't want to teach yourself the wrong way to say it. You can try to look for the correct sentence in a dictionary or on the Web (see next point), but when speaking, usually you don't have time for that. So it's a good idea to say something else — something that you know is correct. It can even be something on a different subject. 4.         When writing, always look things up. Whenever you're not sure how to use a word, look it up in a good dictionary to find example sentences with it. When you've written something, and you are not sure if it's correct, search for it on the Web with Google. If many pages contain your phrase, then it is probably correct. Dictionaries and Google should be your everyday tools, and you should use them even many times in one sentence (especially if you've just begun writing in English). 5.         Know where you can screw up. Sometimes learners don't even realize how different English is from their native language. When speaking, they translate word for word from their native language, and they think their sentences are okay. When reading or listening in English, pay close attention to things like word order, articles, prepositions, and tenses. Compare sentences in English with equivalent sentences in your native language. Notice the differences in words and in word order. This will make you more careful when speaking in the foreign language, because you will realize which parts of your sentences can be wrong and should be double-checked.

 

__._,_.___

'Librarian: A scholarly profession'

A retired university professor and a librarian, says that the job-market for library professionals looks optimistic in both the public and private sector

 

   Today, our life is virtually under the grip of information and communication. The enormous, unlimited array of information has to be managed and systematically transformed into a useful input for instant use, hence a need for librarians. As such, automation of libraries is the need of the hour, worldwide, to provide online access to books, journals and allied materials.

GROWTH AREAS

Work-culture in libraries is changing fast. Cyber libraries are packed with digital documents, CD-Roms and books among others. Newspapers, journals, textbooks and reference books will also be on CD-Roms and digital multimedia soon. Publishers, like Penguin, have already started issuing classics on CDs. Moreover, various Indian books are made available on the internet. Libraries will soon possess gadgets, gizmos, even robots (with artificial intelligence) and other such machines will command and perform various services for readers, hence a need for skilled librarians.
   A few years hence, paper-library and paperless-library will co-exist. Low-cost, lightweight electronic book-readers, with built-in modem, will be used more conveniently, instead of computers. As publishing is now moving on to digital-mediaformats, library likewise needs to advance its devices and networking to make use of the digital materials. Here, collection of the library is stored and maintained in computer-accessible-form and accessed digitally through computer networking, regardless of the location of libraries. The process makes wellordered, instant informationretrieval possible, globally.
   Staff, book and reader form the 'trinity' in a library. Jobs in library also consist of budgeting, accounting, acquisition of collection, organisation and management of the institution, besides rendering service to readers. IT, digitalisation, online global information, automation have added new dimensions. In the areas of self-education, distant learning and online schooling, library becomes indispensable.

SKILL-SET REQUIRED

Present libraries are a liaison in communication progression and thus, they are more 'service-adept' and less 'resource-oriented.' Likewise, staff has to be technically accomplished and skillfully proficient. Today, librarians (rather, information professionals) functions as 'navigators,' fillers of information to intellectual reserves, with the help of search engines, e-resources, digitalisation and tools like Gopher, FTP, Telnet, Unix, MS-Office, Windows, Linux among others.
   The library profession has truly perceived the diversified dynamics of its job-paradigms and so, the training courses have been designed and drawn accordingly, to meet emerging requirements and challenges.
   Universities are also conducting research and PhD programmes in library and information science. Besides, a certificate course in library science of three to sixmonths' duration is conducted at some places by library associations, for higher secondary students to work as semi-professional or librarian in a small library. Knowledge of foreign languages is an advantage in this profession.

REMUNERATION

A knowledgeable librarian works as a guide, making the reader aware of the relevant literature, like any other teacher. In academic libraries, library professional's grades and status have therefore, been prescribed by the UGC at par with those of teachers of the universities and colleges. University librarian, deputy librarian and assistant librarian are placed in the pay-scales of university professor, associate professor and assistant professor respectively, provided they possess qualification at par with those of the teachers, as prescribed by the UGC.
   In the institutions of science and technology and scientific research also, library professionals are treated at par with those of the corresponding scientists. Job satisfaction of librarians of these institutions of learning and research are quite satisfactory. In public libraries, however, librarians' grades are not uniform and satisfactory. Grades here differ from State to State and much needs to be done to ameliorate conditions of the staff of these libraries.
   With increased emphasis on spread of literacy and education, and a good number of new universities; IITs; engineering colleges; business and management schools and industrial establishments coming up, the job-market for library professionals looks optimistic in both - the public and the private sector.
   Regarded as a noble, soft profession, it is also suited to women, to work in a quite environment, assisting the information-seekers; especially children. Women make good children-librarians. Here, she is not only distributor of books but also an affectionate friend to children; a mentor and a guide.
   A librarian's job is scholarly; a career with promise and growth; meant for a person interested in books and reading; keeping his knowledge abreast with contemporary literature and research.

Cryptic Careers

FROM DECIPHERING AND CONFIGURING CODED MESSAGES ACROSS ENEMY LINES, TO PREPARING AND IMPLEMENTING ALGORITHMS TO PREVENT DATA THEFT, CRYPTOLOGY HAS BROADENED ITS HORIZONS IN THE NEW MILLENNIUM. POSSIBILITIES IN THIS FIELD

 

   The most fascinating element of the Dan Brown best-seller The Da Vinci Code was protagonist Robert Langdon's task of cracking secret messages.. If the thought of decoding mysterious messages or building puzzles that remain ambiguous to most individuals, gives you a thrill, then a career in cryptography might just be the right choice for you.
   The name cryptography comes from the Greek words 'kryptos' which means hidden and 'graphia' which means writing. Avishek Adhikari, lecturer, Department of Pure Mathematics, University of Calcutta, explains:"A cryptosystem or cipher system is a method of disguising messages so that only certain people can see through the disguise. Cryptography is the art of creating and using cryptosystems. Or simply put, it is the art of secret writing."
   Cryptography can also be defined as the science of making messages illegible to unintended recipients. "There are actually two terms – cryptography and cryptanalysis. The latter consists of techniques for breaking cryptographic codes. Together it is called cryptology," clarifies Indranil Sen Gupta, head, Computer Science and Engineering and School of I n fo r m a t i o n Technology, IITKharagpur.
   Cr yptologists before the 80s were primarily depicted as spy agents involved in deciphering and configuring coded messages to gain momentum against enemy activities. However, with the upsurge of information technology and the increasing dependence on electronic data processing, the range of activities a cryptologist is involved in has expanded. The vast digital data that is stored and processed in large computer bases and transmitted through complex communication networks is susceptible to unauthorised interception and interpretation and hence, needs to be protected through encrypted remote access or passwords. "Our commercial transactions (credit card numbers and bank data), our medical data (which may soon be stored on smart cards), mobile communication and other secret diplomatic information can be traced by hackers. To prevent such data theft, we need cryptographers to write stronger codes. In fact, currently, cryptography has broadened greatly from the study of secret writing to the study of information security," informs Adhikari.
   The field also includes decoding patterns and symbols, integrity checks, authenticating digital signature and predicting the possibility of certain outcomes by preparing mathematical models. C E Veni Madhavan, Department of Computer Science and Automation, IISc-Bangalore, elaborates: "The work of a cryptologist includes designing and analysing various robust and strong algorithms, implementation of such algorithms on various platforms and interfaces to other input/output media." They can also analyse existing algorithms for weaknesses, solve known mathematical problems on which many cryptographic algorithms are based and find weaknesses and/ or patch vulnerabilities in existing implementations.
   Cryptologists are in demand in the military forces, government agencies, technology companies, banking and financial organisations, law enforcement agencies, universities and research institutes. Depending on the profile of the organisation one is involved with, the area of functioning varies.. Veni Madhavan points out, "Cryptologists can work with mathematical topics such as number theory, algebra, information theory, combinatorics, probability, etc and also computer science topics such as algorithms, hardware interfaces and other areas including image processing, complexity theory, and so on."
   For instance, the cryptographers of banking companies try to make their systems secure so that all the transactions over the internet can be made safely. On the other hand, cryptographers in the defence arena or intelligence organisations will try to break codes transmitted between two suspected enemies.
   So what does it take to enter this enchanting world of s e c re t messages?
   "It is primarily a re s e a rc h - based subject and hence a PhD in cryptography is the best p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n . Alternatively, a master's degree in mathematics or computer science is also useful. It is however important to have excellent problem solving abilities, familiarity with mathematical and programming tools and some expertise in hacking," contends Adhikari.
   Moreover, to be successful in this field, one should be able to juggle numbers at ease, analyse data effectively and be alert at all times. Prof Sen Gupta asserts, "Just like any other professional, the willingness to learn and work hard are key elements in this field," asserts Sen Gupta, adding,"In India, the main sectors where cryptographers are in high demand are the defence and government sectors. Multinationals and financial institutions also find them useful. The salary is generally at par with any computer science and engineering graduate."
   For a fresher, salaries vary with the organisation they work for and the degrees they have obtained. "Approximately, a graduate can expect anything around Rs 3.6 lakh per annum and for a PhD holder it begins at Rs 6 lakh per annum," maintains Veni Madhavan.
   In India there are several institutes that have research opportunities and other specialised courses in cryptography. Tech institutes such as the IITs, IISc, NITs and other mathematical and statistical institutes such as ISI, University of Calcutta have opportunities for cryptographic research.
   However, students can also opt to go abroad for higher studies in this field. Karan Gupta, education consultant, states, "Cryptography is a growing discipline. Many universities have a separate department for cryptography. Students can opt for a master's degree in computer science with a major in cryptography."

Student's Corner:- ‘Resident’ in the US?

'Resident' in the US?   FOR MBBS GRADUATES WITH LIMITED POSTGRADUATE OPPORTUNITIES, A SHIFT TO MORE LUCRATIVE AMERICAN SHORES HAS BEEN THE GENERAL TREND. DR RISHEEN REEJHSINGHANI TAKES YOU THROUGH THE STEPS OF APPLYING TO A RESIDENCY PROGRAMME IN THE US    Renowned American author, John A Shedd, once said:"A ship is safe in harbour, but that is not what ships are for."    In the journey towards postgraduate medical education, this rings true in more ways than one. Upon completion of the MBBS in India, there are several avenues open to doctors for specialisation. With degrees, diplomas and specialised courses offered in every field imaginable, the options are endless. When deciding to pursue residency abroad though, the United States of America offers doctors tremendous opportunities in the medical specialties with the benefit of a highly structured application procedure for international medical graduates. The Education Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) is the organisation, which certifies international medical graduates for entry to US graduate medical education programmes. QUALIFYING EXAMINATIONS The first, and easily the most important requirement for applying to residency programmes in the US, is completion of the United States Medical Licensing Examinations (USMLE). The USMLE consists of four parts:    Step One and Step Two Clinical Knowledge are both computer-based examinations comprised of multiple-choice questions.    Step Two Clinical Skills is a practical exam that involves examining and diagnosing standardised patients.    Step Three ,the final exam in the series,is a computer-based exam with both multiple choice questions and clinical case simulations.    These exams can be taken in any order, except Step Three, which requires the candidate to have passed the prior steps, and which can be taken in advance or during residency training itself. While Step One and Two CK are offered at various centres across India, Step Two CS and Step Three can only be taken at centres in the US and its territories. It is essential to apply well in advance for these exams, as the demand is tremendous and dates get filled rapidly. Applications for all the exams, except Step Three, are made through the ECFMG website www.ecfmg.org.    Rigorous preparation for the USMLE is vital, because even though the exams can be taken repeatedly on failure to pass, a passing score remains valid for seven years and cannot be bettered by repeated attempts at the examination.There are various resources in the form of classes, as well as online question banks, which can be purchased to aid with exam preparation. It is also imperative to solve questions early on in order to become accustomed to the style of answering, which is quite different from that of the Indian medical exams. More information about the USMLE is available on the website (www.usmle.org). CERTIFICATION Certification awarded by the ECFMG is a measure of the readiness of foreign-trained doctors to enter accredited residency programmes in the United States. Certification is awarded when the following criteria are met: successful completion of Step One and Two (CK and CS) and verification of medical education credentials - a procedure involving correspondence between ECFMG and your medical college in India. Receiving ECFMG Certification is mandatory for international, medical graduates prior to entering accredited residency programmes in the United States.The USMLE Step Three Examination also, can only be applied for after obtaining ECFMG Certification. CLINICAL EXPERIENCE If you are an international medical graduate, it is important and highly advantageous to have gained US clinical or research experience prior to applying.Such experience can be obtained in various forms and should ideally continue for at least two to three months. An Observership involves shadowing a doctor or a team but has strict regulations, forbidding direct patient contact.An Externship,which is done during medical school or internship, offers more hands-on training, and hence provides a more thorough clinical experience. Says Dr Rohit Singhania, who has just completed a residency in internal medicine from a hospital in New York City,"With the increasingly competitive process of getting into a residency in the US, apart from good scores (which are a prerequisite), it definitely helps to have clinical experience here in the US, along with the related letters of recommendation. These help to strengthen the application significantly." APPLICATIONS Applications for most residency programmes are routed via the online Electronic Residency Application System (ERAS), to which you can submit your application and apply to programmes as well. The ERAS system generally starts accepting applications around the beginning of September, and it is important to note that each programme has its own application deadline. No matter what the deadline, it is highly beneficial to apply early.    Letters of recommendation and the personal statement are integral parts of the application. It is vital to obtain strong, sincere letters of recommendation from people who have known you as a student/doctor for a reasonable period of time. If you have had the chance to observe/work under doctors in the US, submitting letters of recommendation from them is extremely valuable as well.    A personal statement is the one chance you have to give programme directors an insight into your personality, beliefs and career goals. Make it honest, interesting and powerful. Perfecting your personal statement is time well spent, as it can create an extremely favourable impression about you. INTERVIEWS Based on the applications submitted to ERAS, programmes invite suitable candidates for a personal interview. Interviews are generally scheduled between October and January, but this varies between programmes. If you are travelling from India for an interview, it is helpful to schedule the interviews well in advance, as well as anticipate air/ road travel between various cities, hotel reservations, etc.    It is essential to be well prepared for the interview, as programmes meet with hundreds of candidates during each application season. Acquaint yourself with the programme through its website and be ready to talk about yourself and the features you have listed in your CV. Also, since interviews offer a chance to learn more about the programme, feel free to ask questions to the faculty and other residents you meet there.    The final step in the journey to obtain a residency position in the United States is known as 'The Match'. Both applicants and residency programmes submit rank order lists based on individual preferences. The National Residency Matching Programme (NRMP) then compares these lists using a computerised match algorithm. This results in successful applicants being matched into suitable residency programmes. The process of entering a residency programme in the United States requires a high degree of dedication and fortitude. Matching into a programme in a truly international arena however, offers Indian trained doctors a new perspective to medicine, which can only complement all they have learnt in medical college. For information on other Indian and international competitive exams, log on to www.educationtimes.com and click on 'Exams'